Free flying

Free flying

Free flying is an expansion of skydiving which includes the traditional belly-to-earth positions, but extends into vertical flight where the flyer is in an upright position (falling feet first) or in an inverted position (falling head first). These positions increase free-fall speeds and make new types of formations and routines possible.

A free flyer, in order to fully understand the aerodynamic power of his/her body in free-fall, needs to first learn to control all of the skydiving forms: box position (belly-to-earth, traditional skydiving position), back flying (back-to-earth), head-up flying, head-down flying, and side flying. These positions are not held for the duration of a skydive. Free flying can, and usually does, involve constant transitions in position and speeds, with vertical and horizontal orientations. This can involve constantly flowing skydives, with all positions explored, or more static skydives where flyers are concentrating on building a large formation while flying in one of these free fly positions.

Due to the increased free-fall speed and potentially faster horizontal speeds, free flying has dangers beyond that of a normal skydive. Extra care must be taken for free-fall skydive groups to stay away from belly-to-earth skydivers to avoid collisions. Since most parachutes are not designed to be opened at speeds higher than that of normal belly flying, free flyers must transition back to the "belly to earth" position and slow down their descent for several seconds before deploying their parachute.

While free flying is a younger and more extreme addition to skydiving, it is becoming a popular event in competitions and world records.

History

Free flying is a skydiving discipline which began in the late 1980s when Olav Zipser began experimenting with non-traditional forms of body flight. Zipser founded the Free Fly Clowns as a two person competitive team with Mike Vail in 1992, and was joined by Omar Alhegelan, Charles Bryan, and Stefania Martinengo in 1994. The Free Fly Clowns are also credited with opening the first school to teach free flying, The First School of Modern Sky Flying.

Free flying broke into the limelight in 1996 when the SSI Pro Tour added free flying as a three person competitive discipline at the second televised event (with Skysurfing), part of ESPN's Destination Extreme series. 150 countries watched teams like the Free Fly Clowns (Olav Zipser, Charles Bryan and Omar Alhegelan), the Flyboyz (Eli Thompson, Mike Ortiz, Knut Krecker, Fritz Pfnür), Team Airtime (Tony Urugallo, Jim O'Reilly, Peter Raymond, Brian Germain), and many other pioneers of free flying show off their best moves. In 1996 and 1997, the SSI Pro Tour staged eight televised events in both North America and Europe with $36,000 in cash prizes awarded to free fly teams. SSI invited the 1997 Pro World Champions, the Flyboyz, to participate in the 1998 ESPN X Games as an unofficial exhibition. The resulting global television exposure made legends out of the Free Fly Clowns, the Flyboyz, and others. A once fledgling off-shoot of the mainstream, free flying now comprises fully one-half of the overall skydiving community.

Olav Zipser's Space Games used the space ball as a research and measuring device to provide a constant speed and direction from which individual athletes could be trained, rated, raced against each other and judged. The Space Games took Free Flying to the next level from 1998.

In 2000 Free Fly was accepted as an aviation discipline by the International Parachute Commission (IPC) and the first official Free Fly National Championships were held worldwide.

Games

The Space Games came about as a result of the Atmosphere Dolphin Free Fly License Program ran through Olav ZIpser's First School of Modern Sky Flying. Zipser used a constant speed and direction measuring device (space balls) around which high speed precision free fly athletes could train and be tested to fly to the same standard. This provided the testing ground for the research and development of free flying, and opened up the possibility for a number of human flight air games and competitions.

The 1st Space Games was held at Skydive America Palm Beach, Pahokee, Florida in 1997.

The most recent and 16th Space Games was held at Skydive Sport Center Tortuga, Arezzo, Italy in 2006

Free Flyers training with a Space Ball for the Space Games

The Space Games is a free fly skydiving competition event created by 'Father of ' Free Fly' Olav Zipser.

In the early days of free flying, Zipser wanted to get the best free flyers at the time together to research, develop, and document the performance evolution of human free flying.

Human flight races, air games and competitions with an open-class and a pro-class were devised, and the first of its kind and first Space Games was held at Skydive America Palm Beach, Pahokee, Florida in 1997.

A total of 16 Space Games events were organized between 1997 and 2006, with cash prizes totaling as much as US$35 000 per event awarded to the winners of different categories.

The Space Games consists of human flight air races and competitions, and incorporates double elimination one-on-one races, open rounds, competition rounds,

• The Free Fly Indie 500,
• The Free Fly Atmosphere Dolphin Challenge,
• Fastest,
• Slowest and Furthest competitions,
• Freestyle,
• Sky Surf,
• 3 way and 4 way Free Fly Challenges.

Types

Back flying

Sit flying

Head down flying

Free flying Gear

1. AAD- Automatic Activation Device
2. Main and Reserve Parachutes
3. Helmet
4. Goggles
5. Altimeter
6. Harness and Container Systems
7. Cameras and Camera Equipment
8. Jumpsuits, Wing suits and Clothing

                                         Felix Baumgartner's supersonic freefall.

World Champion Freestyle skydiving                                             .

Free Diving

Free-diving

Sponge diving is the oldest known form of the original art of underwater diving, in order to retrieve natural sponges for human use.

Spearfishing is an ancient method of fishing that has been used throughout the world for millennia. Early civilizations were familiar with the custom of spearing fish from rivers and streams using sharpened sticks.

Spearfishing may be done using free-diving, snorkeling, or scuba diving techniques. Spearfishing while using scuba equipment is illegal in some countries. The use of mechanically powered spear guns is also outlawed in some countries and jurisdictions. Spearfishing is highly selective, normally uses no bait and has no by-catch.

Free-diving  is a form of underwater diving that relies on a diver's ability to hold his or her breath until resurfacing rather than on the use of a breathing apparatus such as scuba gear. Examples include breath-hold spear fishing, free dive photography, recreational breath-hold diving, apnea competitions, and to some degree, snorkeling. The activity that garners the most public attention is the extreme sport of competitive apnea in which competitors attempt to attain great depths, times, or distances on a single breath.

Free divers

Who've trained their bodies and minds to function underwater for long periods without taking a breath.

As scientists have discovered, even though humans evolved on land, we've retained a trace of that reflex, too. Free divers have learned to push self-induced apnea -- the scientific term for going without breathing -- to new extremes through sophisticated mind-body control techniques similar to those employed by meditating yogis and martial artists.

History

People started diving into deep water and making like dolphins thousands of years ago, long before they understood exactly why they had the ability to do it. Ancient Greek divers weighted themselves down and descended to depths of 100 feet (30.5 meters) or more to pluck sponges from the sea bottom. In Japan and Korea, traditional female free divers known as Ama have long collected edible seaweed and clams at depths of 65 feet (19.8 meters) or more. Because coastal dwellers have been free diving for many generations, you might suspect that they've developed special genetic traits that make them better at it than inlanders. But scientists who've studied them say there's no evidence of that.

All humans do share an evolutionary adaptation with air-breathing aquatic animals that makes it possible for them to dive and swim underwater for a while without taking a breath. In 1870, French physiologist Paul Bert observed that ducks had an amazing ability to slow their heart rate if they were forced to stay underwater. Scientists went on to discover that immersion in cold water -- or even simply holding your breath -- triggers something called the diving reflex, which the body uses to conserve life-giving oxygen. When the reflex kicks in, your pulse slows and your circulatory system constricts, and blood is shunted away from your muscles, skin and visceral organs, guaranteeing that your heart and brain get first dibs.

For years, scientists believed that humans were capable of enduring without oxygen for only a few minutes and that they couldn't dive deeper than 164 feet (50 meters), because the pressure would shrink their lungs and crush their rib cages. But in the 1960s and 1970s, divers disproved that myth. As it turns out, a phenomenon called blood shift causes the lungs to fill with plasma, preventing collapse.

In 1976, French diver Jacques Mayol became the first human to descend to (328 feet) 100 meters. Mayol, who studied Indian yoga and the breathing techniques of kung fu-practicing Shaolin monks, adapted those mind-body control methods to slow his pulse from 60 to 27 beats per minute underwater, enabling him to dive deeper and longer. In doing so, he revolutionized free diving and paved the way for Herbert Nitsch's generation of divers to push the limits even further.

Even then, tragedies sometimes occur. In 2002, elite French diver Audrey Mestre was attempting to set a no-limits depth record off the coast of the Dominican Republic, when equipment malfunctions apparently kept her underwater too long. She lost consciousness during her ascent and perished. Another French champion free diver, Loic Leferme, died off the south of France in 2007 when his ascent rope became snagged.

Now days free diving is a technique used with various aquatic activities. Examples of recognized free diving activities are (non-) competitive free diving, (non-) competitive spearfishing, free diving photography and mermaid shows. Less recognized examples of free diving include, but are not limited to, synchronized swimming, underwater rugby, underwater hockey, underwater hunting other than spearfishing, underwater target shooting and snorkeling. The discussion remains whether free diving is only a synonym for breath-hold diving or whether it describes a specific group of underwater activities. The term 'free diving' is often associated with competitive breath-hold diving or competitive apnea.

Physiology

The human body has several reflex oxygen-conserving adaptations that manifest under diving conditions. The adaptations include:

Reflex bradycardia: Drop in heart rate.

Splenic contraction: Releasing red blood cells carrying oxygen.

Blood-shift: Blood flow and volume is redistributed towards vital organs by means of a reflex vasoconstriction. Blood vessels distend and become engorged, which in the case of the pulmonary capillaries assists with pressure compensation that comes with increasing diving depth, and without which a largely air-filled chest cavity would simply collapse for lack of compliance.

Body-cooling: peripheral vasoconstriction results in cooling of peripheral tissue beds, which lower their oxygen demand in a thermodynamic manner. In addition, Murat et al. (2013) recently discovered that breath-holding results in prompt and substantial brain cooling, just like in diving birds and seals. (Dry) breath-holds result in cooling on the order of about 1°C/minute, but this is likely to be greater with cold water submersion, in proportion to the magnitude and promptness of the dive response.

Techniques

Tips:

• Bigger fins are harder to handle but have better results (more power/faster)
• You will need to equalize once you get to about 3 meters below the surface. Do this by pinching your nose shut and trying to exhale through your nose. You will need to do this regularly, especially in the first meters where the pressure changes a lot. Your inner ear will equalize automatically on your ascent.
• DO NOT dive deeply if you have a cold or are unable to equalize, you may do serious damage to your ear drums.

Steps are:

• Time your breath-holding capacity underwater, and record it for future reference.
• Take your pulse rate by putting both your index and middle finger together and either hold on your wrist or side of neck. You only need to apply slight pressure and wait a few seconds to feel slight "pumps" count for two minutes. Divide this by 2 (makes for a more accurate pulse rate) and you should now have your pulse rate. Record this and keep track of it.
• Figure out how far down you can go on one breath, but do it with a partner in case of blackout. Record this depth.
• Practice taking slow, deep breaths -5 seconds on the inhale - and 10-15 seconds or more on the exhale. (WARNING: If you keep the same timing for inhale and exhale, you'll do hyperventilation. This may lead you to blackout). After you've mastered this, remain still and do it while having somebody else record your pulse.
• Practice this until you can hold a pulse of under 80 beats a minute before starting the next step.
• Try going down after deep breathing at the same location you did your last dive. If you went down 7-10 feet the first time, try to get it to 16 feet, 11-19 feet try to go to 25 feet, 30+ just try to beat it by ten feet.
• Try practicing the above steps over and over. Your pulse should get to 60 or below after about a month, so try getting fins and testing how far you can go.
• Practice slow, deep, refined kicks with the biggest fins you can find and you will descend faster with fins later on. (Get proper free-diving fins with a soft action)
• Try spending 1 minute under water and 1 minute out of the water to let the co2 escape from your lungs.
• Grab a rock to help prevent your body's natural buoyancy.

Warning

• Do not hyperventilate. Hyperventilating before your dive will expel and decrease the amount of CO2 in your system. CO2 levels in your blood are what triggers your senses to exhale and take in another breath when you hold it. Therefore, removing CO2 only prolongs the period before the body needs to inhale. Hyperventilation does not increase the amount of oxygen present in the body. While you may be able to hold your breath longer at depth, you will be more prone to blackout on the ascent.
• When diving deeply (below 20') your lungs compress enough that re-surfacing may be harder than expected.
• Never dive at night or in a strong current area. Currents get significantly stronger farther down.
• Do not attempt if you have heart or lung problems.
• Never take medication to clear your sinus, as the mucus could come back and make it difficult to equalize when ascending
• Never dive unless you are with someone who could rescue you from the depths you'll be going to.

Equipment

Fins,
Carbon Fins
Fiberglass Fins






Monofins.







Blades,
Carbon Blades
Fiberglass Blades



Masks








Snorkels

Wetsuits & Swimwear.

Disciplines

Competitive free diving is currently governed by two world associations: AIDA International (International Association for Development of Apnea) and CMAS (World Underwater Federation).

Pool disciplines

Dynamic with Fins (DYN) the free diver travels in a horizontal position under water attempting to cover the greatest possible distance. Any propulsion aids other than fins or a monofin and swimming movements with the arms are prohibited Dynamic with fins is the most typical of both disciplines measuring the distance in free diving, because of the specific means of propulsion : long fins or monofin. Performances could only be recognized in swimming-pools with a minimum length of 25 meters, and are sometimes considered in national or indoors 'combine', with the Static apnea.

Dynamic without Fins (DNF) the free diver travels in a horizontal position under water attempting to cover the greatest possible distance. Any propulsion aids are prohibited. Dynamic without fins is the most natural of both disciplines measuring the distance for many free divers, because it doesn't need any propulsing material, but a very good technique. Performances also could only be recognized in pools with a minimum length of 25 meters, and are greatly appreciated from "old-swimmers".

Static Apnea (STA) the free diver holds his breath for as long as possible with his respiratory tracts immerged, his body either in the water or at the surface. Static apnea is the only discipline measuring the duration, and one of the three disciplines considered for the international competitions by team, with Constant weight and Dynamic with fins. Performances could be done and recognized in both pool and open water (sea, lake, river, etc.)

Depth disciplines

No Limit (NLT) The free diver descends with the help of a ballast weight and ascends via a method of his choice. No limit is the absolute depth discipline. Going down with a sled, and going back up with a balloon, a diving suit or a vest with inflatable compartments, or whatever other means.   

Variable Weight (VWT) The free diver descends with the help of a ballast weight and ascends using his own strength: arms and/or legs, either by pulling or not pulling on the rope. Variable weight is the first of both depth disciplines using a sled to go down in the water. Old sleds was descending "head first", like presented in the famous Luc Besson's movie "Le Grand Bleu", but new sleds descending "feet first" are now generalized.      
  

Constant Weight (CWT) The free diver descends and ascends using his fins/monofin and/or with the use of his arms without pulling on the rope or changing his ballast; only a single hold of the rope to stop the descent and start the ascent is allowed. Constant weight is the common sportive depth discipline of free diving, because of the specific fins or monofins used in it. Constant weight is one of the three disciplines considered for the international competitions by team, with Static apnea and Dynamic with fins.

Constant Weight without Fins (CNF) The free diver descends and ascends under water using only his own muscle strength, without the use of propulsion equipment and without pulling on the rope. Constant weight without fins is the most difficult sportive depth discipline, because of absolutely no propulsing material to go down in the water. This category needs a perfect coordination between propulsing movements, equalization, technique and buoyancy.   

Free Immersion (FIM) The free diver dives under water without the use of propulsion equipment, but only by pulling on the rope during descent and ascent. Free immersion is the sportive depth discipline with the purest sensations, because of the speed of the water in the body, and the power of each pull on the rope as only mean of propulsion. Performances could be done the head first during the descent, or the feet first, depending equalization facilities of each free divers... Some of them also even use mixed solutions.

Extreme Ironing

Extreme Ironing

Extreme Ironing (also called EI) is an extreme sport and a performance art in which people take ironing boards to remote locations and iron items of clothing. According to the Extreme Ironing Bureau, extreme ironing is "the latest danger sport that combines the thrills of an extreme outdoor activity with the satisfaction of a well-pressed shirt."

Part of the attraction and interest the media has shown towards extreme ironing seems to center on the issue of whether it is really a sport or not. It is widely considered to be tongue-in-cheek.

Some locations where such performances have taken place include a mountainside of a difficult climb; a forest; in a canoe; while skiing or snowboarding; on top of large bronze statues; in the middle of a street; underwater; in the middle of the M1 Motorway; during a keirin race; whilst parachuting; and under the ice cover of a lake. The performances have been conducted solo or by groups.

                       

Categories

1. Aircraft Ironing
2. Base jump Ironing
3. Cave Ironing
4. Cliff Ironing
5. Taxi Ironing

History

Purists of the sport claim that it was started in 1997 in Leicester, East Midlands, and England by resident Phil Shaw in his back garden. Shaw came home from what he recalls as a hard day in a Leicester knitwear factory. Preferring the idea of an evening out rock climbing, he decided to combine the two activities into a new extreme sport. In June 1999, Shaw, who uses the nickname "Steam", embarked on an international tour to promote the activity. The stops included the United States, Fiji, New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. An encounter with German tourists in New Zealand led to the formation of a group called "Extreme Ironing International", and the German Extreme Ironing Section or GEIS.

                                                       

As extreme ironing has branched off, the conditions can gain in extreme activity. For example, a branch of ironing has been developed that includes both bungee jumping and well-pressed clothing. Bungee ironing is what some would call the ultimate in the thrill of extreme ironing.

The "sport" gained international attention after a documentary entitled Extreme Ironing: Pressing for Victory, was produced for Britain's Channel 4 by Wag TV.

Extreme Ironing World Championships

The program followed the British team's efforts and eventual Bronze and Gold placing in the 1st Extreme Ironing World Championships in Germany. A side-story looked at the rivalry between the EIB (Extreme Ironing Bureau) and a breakaway group called Urban Housework who were trying to establish their own extreme sport based around vacuum-cleaning. The film later aired on the National Geographic Channel.

In 2003 the Rowenta Trophy was won by a group from South Africa by ironing across a gorge at the Wolfberg Cracks.

In 2004, the EIB traveled to the US on the Rowenta Tour to recruit additional ironists and ironed at Mount Rushmore, New York, Boston and Devils Tower.

In March 2008, a team of 72 divers simultaneously ironing underwater set a new world's record for number of people ironing underwater at once.

On 10 January 2009, 128 divers including 6 freedivers, attempted to break the previous world record, managing to confirm 86 divers ironing within a 10 minute period. The event took place at the National Diving and Activity Centre (NDAC) near Chepstow, Gloucestershire, UK and was organised by members of the Yorkshire Divers internet forum. In addition to breaking the world record, the event raised over £15000 for the Royal National Lifeboat Institution.

On 1 May 2010, a group of Dive Centers in Key Largo Florida are attempting to take claim of the record. The event is part of the Conch Republic Days in the Florida Keys and will be attempted by Keys Diver, Silent World Dive Center, and Captain Slates Atlantis Dive Center. The attempt will take place at the historic site of the Christ of the Abyss at Key Largo Dry Rocks.

On 28 March 2011 Dutch diving club De Waterman from Oss set the new (official) World record extreme underwater ironing. A group of 173 divers set the new world record in an indoor swimming pool in Oss in the Netherlands. Because of their 40 year anniversary the De Waterman organized this event.

On 18 April 2011, tenor Jason Blair was filmed ironing on the M1 motorway in London, UK, a section of which had been closed following a fire.

In 2011, Extreme Ironing enthusiast William Hinton brought a new interest to the sport along America’s East Coast ironing many hikes along the Appalachian Trail as well as ironing numerous water activities including surfing and wakeboarding.

In 2012, Extreme Ironing founder, Steam, came out of retirement to take on a new challenge and run the Hastings Half Marathon in March wearing an ironing board, pressing garments on the way. In May, the mayor of Whit church, Hampshire pressed a ribbon before cutting it to open a newly built bridge over the railway line.

Extreme Ironing has inspired other forms of unusual extreme activity, such as Extreme Cello Playing.

On March 24, 2013 Extreme Ironing came to the United States with the formation of the first-known American chapter of Extreme Ironing. Founding members Mike Kelsey, Matt Hicks, Caysey Herschaft and Erika Weinbacher (all of the meet-up group Hudson Valley Hikers) hosted an Extreme Ironing Inaugural Event in Ellenville NY. The group immersed themselves in ironing while hiking, caving, rock climbing, and bouldering amid snow, ice, and rock overhangs. Extreme Ironing America spread to Canada when club members ironed on rock and water while on a trek in Quebec in September 2013. They appeared on the radio on Hot 101.7 FM in San Francisco in April 2013 to explain Extreme Ironing and on NBC's TODAY Show on October 1, 2013 where TODAY show host Matt Lauer learned to Extreme Iron in various locations in Central Park, NYC including on a double-decker bus, row boat and band shell.

1st Extreme Ironing World Championships

The 1st Extreme Ironing World Championships was the inaugural championship for the quirky British sport of extreme ironing.

The first event, held in mid-September 2002 in Valley, Bavaria, a small village near Munich in the district Miesbach, was host to competitors from ten nations, comprising 12 teams (three were from Britain).

Competing countries:

1. Austria
2. Australia
3. Chile
4. Croatia
5. Great Britain; three teams called GB1, GB2, GB3
6. Germany

                                         

Ironing championship sections

• Urban- Involved ironing in/on/around a broken down car.
• Water- A fast flowing river was the location for this station. Competitors could use surfboards, canoes or rubber rings to help them.
• Forest- Ironing at the top of a tree did not suit all the competitors.
• Rocky- A purpose built climbing wall, which ironists had to climb and iron a t-shirt.
• Freestyle- The section where "anything goes".

Caving

Caving

Caving also occasionally known as spelunking in the United States and Canada and potholing in the United Kingdom and Ireland—is the recreational pastime of exploring wild (generally non-commercial) cave systems. In contrast, speleology is the scientific study of caves and the cave environment.

The challenges involved in the activity depend on the cave being visited, but often include the negotiation of pitches, squeezes, and water (although actual cave diving is a separate, and much more dangerous, sub-specialty undertaken by very few cavers).

In recent decades, caving has changed considerably due to the availability of modern protective wear and equipment. It has recently come to be known as an "extreme sport" by some (though not commonly considered as such by its practitioners, who may dislike the term for its perceived connotation of disregard for safety).

Many of the skills involved in caving can also be put to use in mine exploration and urban exploration.

History

Caving was pioneered by Édouard-Alfred Martel (1859–1938) who first achieved the descent and exploration of the Gouffre de Padirac, France as early as 1889 and the first complete descent of a 110 meter wet vertical shaft at Gaping Gill, in Yorkshire, England in 1895. He developed his own techniques based on ropes and metallic ladders. Martel visited Kentucky and notably Mammoth Cave National Park in October 1912. In the 1920s famous US caver Floyd Collins made important explorations in the area and in the 1930s, as caving became increasingly popular, small exploration teams both in the Alps and in the karstic high plateaus of southwest France (Causses and Pyrenees) transformed cave exploration in both a scientific and recreational activity. Robert de Joly, Guy de Lavaur and Norbert Casteret were prominent figures of that time. They surveyed mostly caves in Southwest France. During World War II, an alpine team composed of Pierre Chevalier, Fernand Petzl, Charles Petit-Didier and others explored the Dent de Crolles cave system near Grenoble, France which became the deepest explored system in the world (-658m) at that time. The lack of available equipment during the war forced Pierre Chevalier and the rest of the team to develop their own equipment, leading to technical innovation. The scaling-pole (1940), nylon ropes (1942), use of explosives in caves (1947) and mechanical rope-ascenders (Henri Brenot's "monkeys", first used by Chevalier and Brenot in a cave in 1934) can be directly associated to the exploration of the Dent de Crolles cave system.

In 1941, American cavers organized themselves into the National Speleological Society (NSS) to advance the exploration, conservation, study, and understanding of caves in the United States. American caver Bill Cuddington, known as "Vertical Bill", developed the single rope technique (SRT) in the late 1950s. In 1958, two Swiss alpinists, Juesi and Marti teamed together, creating the first rope ascender known as the Jumar. In 1968 Bruno Dressler asked Fernand Petzl, who worked as a metals machinist, to build a rope-ascending tool, today known as the Petzl Croll, that he had developed by adapting the Jumar to pit caving. Pursuing these developments, Petzl started in the 1970s a caving equipment manufacturing company named Petzl. The development of the rappel rack and the evolution of mechanical ascension systems extended the practice and safety of pit exploration to a larger venue of cavers.

List of longest caves

	System	Length	Location	Disco­very	Associated parks, protected areas
1	Mammoth Cave	651.8 km (405.0 mi)	near Brownsville, Kentucky, United States	1791	Mammoth Cave National Park, also a World Heritage Site and International Biosphere Reserve
2	Sistema Sac Actun /Sistema Dos Ojos	319.0 km (198.2 mi)	near Tulum, Quintana Roo, Mexico	1987	none
3	Jewel Cave	267.6 km (166.3 mi)	near Custer, South Dakota, United States	1900	Jewel Cave National Monument
4	Sistema Ox Bel Ha	256.7 km (159.5 mi)	near Tulum, Quintana Roo, Mexico	1996	southern parts in Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve
5	Optymistychna Cave	236.0 km (146.6 mi)	near Korolivka, Ukraine	1966	none
6	Wind Cave	226.1 km (140.5 mi)	near Hot Springs, South Dakota, United States	1881	Wind Cave National Park
7	Lechuguilla Cave	222.6 km (138.3 mi)	near Carlsbad, New Mexico, United States	1900	Carlsbad Caverns National Park
8	Hölloch	200.4 km (124.5 mi)	Muotathal, Switzerland	1875	none
9	Gua Air Jernih	197.1 km (122.5 mi)	Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia	1978	Gunung Mulu National Park, also a World Heritage Site
10	Fisher Ridge Cave System	194.9 km (121.1 mi)	near Cave City, Kentucky, United States	1981	Mammoth Cave National Park

Protective clothing

Thermal protection

Caves in temperate regions such as Europe and North America maintain an average yearly temperature of 11-13°C (52-58°F). While this is not especially cold, exposure to water and fatigue can increase the risk of hypothermia. Cavers usually wear a one-piece under suit made of fleece or fiber pile, sometimes used in tandem with thermal underclothes. In warmer caves, such as those in France and Spain, lighter under suits are used to prevent overheating.

When caving in wet caves neoprene wetsuits provide superior insulation to fleece underclothes. While cavers often use wetsuits designed for surfing or diving, specialist caving wetsuits are available with reinforced elbows and knees. Hybrid fleece/wetsuit under suits are also used.

Abrasive protection

Cavers commonly wear protective over suits, similar to boiler suits but made of heavily abrasive resistant material such as cordura. In wet or windy caves PVC over suits may be preferred, as they provide a greater degree of protection against getting wet and keep the caver warmer. Over suits often come with reinforced areas, especially at wear points such as the elbows, seat and shins. Internal pockets and hoods are sometimes provided.

Knee pads, and less commonly, elbow pads are worn both to protect the caver and the caver's clothing. Gloves are also worn by cavers. In wet caves neoprene gloves can be worn as added protection against the cold.

Footwear

Wellington boots are a popular choice of footwear, being hard wearing, cheap, having good grip and great water resistance. Hiking boots are also worn as footwear, providing superior ankle support. They do however let water and grit in much easier and are often damaged by the harsh cave environment. There is also the risk of lace hooks ensnaring on ladders. In large dry tropical caves they are superior to welllington boots, being cooler and restrict movement less. Specialist canyoning boots offer an expensive alternative to wellingtons and hiking boots.

Helmets

While helmets are used to protect the cavers head against occasional falling rocks, they find much more use in protecting the caver’s heads from bumps and scrapes as the caver moves through low or awkward passageway. Helmets are invaluable for mounting lights, often cavers will attach an array of lights to their helmet. Many helmets used in caving can also be used as climbing helmets.

Vertical equipment

Many caves have shafts or drops that require ropes or ladders to pass. Wire ladders have largely been superseded by ropes for descending Pitch (vertical space) since the early 60's, though ladders still have useful applications on shorter pitches, where full abseiling gear would be inappropriate.

Single rope technique

Single rope technique (SRT) is the most commonly used technique for passing vertical obstacles.

Standard Equipment

Climbing harness - These are static and more abrasion resistant than the harnesses used in rock climbing.

Climbing rope - The rope used for abseiling is low-stretch static rope, typically 9mm thick in Europe. In the US SRT rope is thicker (11mm) and more abrasion resistant, given the greater amount of rope rub tolerated. Ropes are cut into varying lengths

Ascender - These are used to ascend ropes. Devices that used lever cams were once used, though these have now been overtaken in popularity by toothed cam devices which slip less. A minimum of two ascendents are used, one attached to the harness at waist level, and another attached to a foot loop and moved by hand. A third ascend er may be attached to a foot and a rope walking technique used.

Descender - This is used to abseil down the rope. There are two main types of descender - a bobbin descender such as the Petzl Stop, or a rack descender, favored in parts of the US for its smooth descent and excellent heat sinking capacities. Bobbin descenders are favored for European style SRT as it is easier to change ropes with at re belays and is lighter.

Cows tails - These are lanyards used to clip into safe points of contact when changing over at rebelays and while using traverse lines. They are made from a length of dynamic rope with two lanyards of differing length ending in carabiners.

Knife - Knives are used as safety equipment to cut ropes, cut hair caught in descenders etc.

Whistle - On long pitches where shouting is ineffective, whistles are used to signal other team members.

Ladders

Wire 'Elektron' ladders were once the most common method of descending large shafts. Today they are largely used for descending short or tight pitches. The rungs of the ladders are usually made of light metals such as aluminum. Ladders are usually made in 5m, 8m, or 10m lengths, and can be clipped together to make longer lengths. While ladders can be used without a belay, this is unsafe and is not recommended. Ladders may be carried loose until needed, or may be carried inside tough PVC tackle-bags.

Rope

Dynamic rope, more commonly used in climbing, is used in caving for belaying cavers on climbs or using ladders.

Static rope, once past its useful life for abseiling, is often used for fixed aids, such as hand lines on climbs. The rope may be knotted to help climbers. Rope may also be recycled for digging.

Bolting

Most caves require artificial anchor points to secure abseiling rope. A common method of placing bolts is to hand drill them using a hammer and a self-drilling bolt, using bolts adapted from the construction industry. A hangar can then be screwed into the bolt. Since affordable battery drills came on the market it is more common to see cavers drill the holes and use a variety of different bolts and concrete screws. Stainless steel resin bolts are used on routes that see a lot of traffic as they have a long life and, if placed correctly, are safe and reliable.

Surveying equipment

Cave surveying is a specialist activity undertaken within caving to produce maps of caves. The type of equipment used depends on the intended accuracy of the survey. A basic survey may be carried out with an orienteering or diving compass and distances paced by foot or estimated. A more accurate survey would make use of a tape measure and specialist surveying compasses and interferometers. Recently there has been a shift to wholly digital cave surveying

Measuring instruments

A standard Brunton Geo, a combined compass and interferometer, popular as a cave surveying compass until recently

The most common device used by cave surveyors is a sighting compass, such as that manufactured by Suunto or Silva, that can be read to the half-degree. Compasses used for cave surveying have to be rugged to cope with the harsh conditions. For high grade surveys, inclinometers are required, and are sometimes made in combined units with compasses. Recently, digital compasses and interferometers have been developed by enthusiasts, some with wireless connections to PDAs, though these have not yet attained widespread use.

Measuring distance

A standard fiberglass tape measure is commonly used to measure distance, usually in lengths of 30m or 50m. Laser rangefinders have recently gained popularity, though tapes remain preferable in especially wet or muddy conditions.

Recording data

Tough waterproof paper is used to record data, the advantage being that, if the paper becomes excessively muddy, it can be washed off in a stream or pool. Paperless surveying is now becoming a reality as digital measuring devices can be wirelessly connected to PDAs where the data is stored and drawn.

FOR CAVE LOVERS:

Waitomo Caves

The Waitomo Caves are a village and cave system forming a major tourist attraction in the northern King Country region of the North Island of New Zealand, 12 kilometers northwest of Te Kuiti. The community of Waitomo Caves itself is very small, though the village has many temporary service workers living there as well. The word Waitomo comes from the Māori language wai meaning water and tomo meaning a doline or sinkhole; it can thus be translated to be water passing through a hole. These Caves are believed to be over two million years old.

HISTORY  

The name "Waitomo" comes from the Māori words wai, water and tomo, hole or shaft. The local Māori people had known about the caves for quite some time before the local Māori Chief Tane Tinorau and an English surveyor, Fred Mace, did an extensive exploration in 1887. Their exploration was conducted with candlelight on a raft going into the cave where the stream goes underground. This is now the exit for the cave. As they began their journey, they came across the Glowworm Grotto and were amazed by the twinkling glow coming from the ceiling. As they travelled further into the cave by poling themselves towards an embankment, they were also astounded by the limestone formations. These formations surrounded them in all shapes and sizes.

They returned many times after and Chief Tane independently discovered the upper level entrance to the cave, which is now the current entrance. Tane Tinorau and his wife Huti, by 1889, had opened the cave to visitors and were leading groups for a small fee. The administration of the cave was taken over by the government in 1906 after there was an escalation in vandalism. In 1910, the Waitomo Caves Hotel was built to house the many visitors.

In 1989, the land and cave were returned to the descendants of Chief Tane Tinorau and Huti. They now receive a percentage of the cave’s revenue and are involved in the management and development of the cave. These descendants encompass many of the employees of the caves today

Majlis al Jinn

Majlis al Jinn, also Majlis al-Jinn (Arabic: مجلس الجن‎, meeting/gathering place of the Jinn, local name: Khoshilat Maqandeli) is the second largest known cave chamber in the world, as measured by the surface area of the floor. It ranks lower when measured by volume. The cave is located in a remote area of the Selma Plateau at 1,380 meters above sea level in the Sultanate of Oman, 100 km south-east from Muscat. 

 HISTORY 

The entrances were discovered in June 1983 by Americans W. Don Davison, Jr. (nickname: D2) and his wife, Cheryl S. Jones. Don, a hydrogeologist, who was employed by the government of Oman's Public Authority for Water Resources (PAWR), which later became the Ministry of Water Resources. The cave was located and mapped as part of the PAWR's Karst Research Program.

Exploration of Majlis Al Jinn began on 23 June 1983, when Don rappelled down the 118m First Drop. Cheryl's Drop was first negotiated on 1 March 1984, by Cheryl Jones. The 158m drop is deepest free rappel into a cave known in Oman and the Arabian peninsula. Finally, Don descended the Asterisk on 22 April 1985.

Don and Cheryl surveyed and photographed the cave in April and May, 1985. The map and cross sections they created, as well as photos, were originally published in the special PAWR report and have been reproduced many times since.

Omanis living in the area of the Selma Plateau told Don and Cheryl that they didn't have names for any of the holes on the plateau that served as entrances to the caves. So Cheryl gave the cave its name, referring to the Omani belief that jinns live in caves. Years later locals said they call the cave "Khoshilat Maqandeli" from the refuge for goats near one of the entrances. Nowadays locals refer to this cave as Khoshilat Maqandeli, while internationally it is known as Majlis al Jinn.

Don authored the first published account of the cave's discovery as a special report Majlis Al Jinn Cave, Sultanate of Oman, issued by the PAWR in October, 1985. A second article by Don, Meeting Room of the Spirits, was featured in the September–October, 1990, issue of Aramco World magazine. Majlis al Jinn was included in a story in the April, 2003, issue of National Geographic Magazine.

Cueva de los Cristales

Cave of the Crystals or Giant Crystal Cave (Spanish: Cueva de los Cristales) is a cave connected to the Naica Mine 300 metres (980 ft) below the surface in Naica, Chihuahua, Mexico. The main chamber contains giant selenite crystals (gypsum, CaSO4·2 H2O), some of the largest natural crystals ever found. The cave's largest crystal found to date is 12 m (39 ft) in length, 4 m (13 ft) in diameter and 55 tons in weight. The cave is extremely hot with air temperatures reaching up to 58 °C (136 °F) with 90 to 99 percent humidity. The cave is relatively unexplored due to these factors. Without proper protection people can only endure approximately ten minutes of exposure at a time.

A group of scientists known as the Naica Project have been heavily involved in researching these caverns.

HISTORY  

In 1910 miners discovered a cavern beneath the Naica mine workings, the Cave of Swords (Spanish: Cueva de las Espadas). It is located at a depth of 120 m, above the Cave of Crystals, and contains spectacular, smaller (1 m long) crystals. It is speculated that at this level, transition temperatures may have fallen much more rapidly, leading to an end in the growth of the crystals.

The Giant Crystal cave was discovered in 2000 by miners excavating a new tunnel for the Industrias Peñoles mining company located in Naica, Mexico, while drilling through the Naica fault, which they were concerned would flood the mine. The mining complex in Naica contains substantial deposits of silver, zinc and lead.

The Cave of Crystals is a horseshoe-shaped cavity in limestone. Its floor is covered with perfectly-faceted crystalline blocks. Huge crystal beams jut out from both the blocks and the floor. The caves are accessible today because the mining company's pumping operations keep them clear of water. If the pumping were stopped, the caves would again be submerged in water. The crystals deteriorate in air, so the Naica Project is attempting to visually document the crystals before they deteriorate further.

Two other smaller caverns were also discovered in 2000, the Queen’s Eye Cave and the Candles’ Cave, and a further chamber was found in a drilling project in 2009. The new cave, named the Ice Palace, is 150 m deep and is not flooded, but its crystal formations are much smaller, with small 'cauliflower' formations and fine, threadlike crystals.

Eisriesenwelt

The Eisriesenwelt (German for "World of the Ice Giants") is a natural limestone ice cave located in Werfen, Austria, about 40 km south of Salzburg. The cave is inside the Hochkogel Mountain in the Tennengebirge section of the Alps. It is the largest ice cave in the world, extending more than 42km and visited by about 200,000 tourists every year.

HISTORY

The first official discovery of Eisriesenwelt was by Anton Posselt, a natural scientist from Salzburg, in 1879, though he only explored the first two hundred meters of the cave. Before his discovery, the cave was known only to locals, who, believing that it was an entrance to Hell, refused to explore it. In 1880, Posselt published his findings in a mountaineering magazine, but the report was quickly forgotten.

Alexander von Mörk, a speleologist from Salzburg, was one of the few people who remembered Posselt's discovery. He led several expeditions into the caves beginning in 1912, which were soon followed by other explorers. Von Mörk was killed in World War I in 1914, and an urn containing his ashes is inside a niche in the cave. In 1920, a cabin for the explorers, Forscherhütte, was built and the first routes up the mountain were established. Tourists began to arrive soon after, attracted by the cave's sudden popularity. Later another cabin, the Dr. Oedl House, and paths from Werfen and Tänneck were constructed.

In 1955 a cable car was built, shortening the 90-minute climb to 3 minutes. Today the Eisriesenwelt cave is owned by the National Austrian Forest Commission, which has leased it to the Salzburg Association of Cave Exploration since 1928. The Forest Commission still receives a percentage of the entrance fees.

Cueva del Fantasma

Cueva del Fantasma ("Cave of the Ghost" in Spanish) is a giant cave in southern Venezuela, located in one of the most biologically rich, geologically ancient parts of the world, along the slopes of Aprada-tepui. Large enough for two helicopters to land in the cave, the report from Zootaxa is said to be the first photographic evidence of such an immense cave. However, experts note, it is not technically a cave, but rather a collapsed, steep gorge.