Caving

Caving

Caving also occasionally known as spelunking in the United States and Canada and potholing in the United Kingdom and Ireland—is the recreational pastime of exploring wild (generally non-commercial) cave systems. In contrast, speleology is the scientific study of caves and the cave environment.

The challenges involved in the activity depend on the cave being visited, but often include the negotiation of pitches, squeezes, and water (although actual cave diving is a separate, and much more dangerous, sub-specialty undertaken by very few cavers).

In recent decades, caving has changed considerably due to the availability of modern protective wear and equipment. It has recently come to be known as an "extreme sport" by some (though not commonly considered as such by its practitioners, who may dislike the term for its perceived connotation of disregard for safety).

Many of the skills involved in caving can also be put to use in mine exploration and urban exploration.

History

Caving was pioneered by Édouard-Alfred Martel (1859–1938) who first achieved the descent and exploration of the Gouffre de Padirac, France as early as 1889 and the first complete descent of a 110 meter wet vertical shaft at Gaping Gill, in Yorkshire, England in 1895. He developed his own techniques based on ropes and metallic ladders. Martel visited Kentucky and notably Mammoth Cave National Park in October 1912. In the 1920s famous US caver Floyd Collins made important explorations in the area and in the 1930s, as caving became increasingly popular, small exploration teams both in the Alps and in the karstic high plateaus of southwest France (Causses and Pyrenees) transformed cave exploration in both a scientific and recreational activity. Robert de Joly, Guy de Lavaur and Norbert Casteret were prominent figures of that time. They surveyed mostly caves in Southwest France. During World War II, an alpine team composed of Pierre Chevalier, Fernand Petzl, Charles Petit-Didier and others explored the Dent de Crolles cave system near Grenoble, France which became the deepest explored system in the world (-658m) at that time. The lack of available equipment during the war forced Pierre Chevalier and the rest of the team to develop their own equipment, leading to technical innovation. The scaling-pole (1940), nylon ropes (1942), use of explosives in caves (1947) and mechanical rope-ascenders (Henri Brenot's "monkeys", first used by Chevalier and Brenot in a cave in 1934) can be directly associated to the exploration of the Dent de Crolles cave system.

In 1941, American cavers organized themselves into the National Speleological Society (NSS) to advance the exploration, conservation, study, and understanding of caves in the United States. American caver Bill Cuddington, known as "Vertical Bill", developed the single rope technique (SRT) in the late 1950s. In 1958, two Swiss alpinists, Juesi and Marti teamed together, creating the first rope ascender known as the Jumar. In 1968 Bruno Dressler asked Fernand Petzl, who worked as a metals machinist, to build a rope-ascending tool, today known as the Petzl Croll, that he had developed by adapting the Jumar to pit caving. Pursuing these developments, Petzl started in the 1970s a caving equipment manufacturing company named Petzl. The development of the rappel rack and the evolution of mechanical ascension systems extended the practice and safety of pit exploration to a larger venue of cavers.

List of longest caves

	System	Length	Location	Disco­very	Associated parks, protected areas
1	Mammoth Cave	651.8 km (405.0 mi)	near Brownsville, Kentucky, United States	1791	Mammoth Cave National Park, also a World Heritage Site and International Biosphere Reserve
2	Sistema Sac Actun /Sistema Dos Ojos	319.0 km (198.2 mi)	near Tulum, Quintana Roo, Mexico	1987	none
3	Jewel Cave	267.6 km (166.3 mi)	near Custer, South Dakota, United States	1900	Jewel Cave National Monument
4	Sistema Ox Bel Ha	256.7 km (159.5 mi)	near Tulum, Quintana Roo, Mexico	1996	southern parts in Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve
5	Optymistychna Cave	236.0 km (146.6 mi)	near Korolivka, Ukraine	1966	none
6	Wind Cave	226.1 km (140.5 mi)	near Hot Springs, South Dakota, United States	1881	Wind Cave National Park
7	Lechuguilla Cave	222.6 km (138.3 mi)	near Carlsbad, New Mexico, United States	1900	Carlsbad Caverns National Park
8	Hölloch	200.4 km (124.5 mi)	Muotathal, Switzerland	1875	none
9	Gua Air Jernih	197.1 km (122.5 mi)	Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia	1978	Gunung Mulu National Park, also a World Heritage Site
10	Fisher Ridge Cave System	194.9 km (121.1 mi)	near Cave City, Kentucky, United States	1981	Mammoth Cave National Park

Protective clothing

Thermal protection

Caves in temperate regions such as Europe and North America maintain an average yearly temperature of 11-13°C (52-58°F). While this is not especially cold, exposure to water and fatigue can increase the risk of hypothermia. Cavers usually wear a one-piece under suit made of fleece or fiber pile, sometimes used in tandem with thermal underclothes. In warmer caves, such as those in France and Spain, lighter under suits are used to prevent overheating.

When caving in wet caves neoprene wetsuits provide superior insulation to fleece underclothes. While cavers often use wetsuits designed for surfing or diving, specialist caving wetsuits are available with reinforced elbows and knees. Hybrid fleece/wetsuit under suits are also used.

Abrasive protection

Cavers commonly wear protective over suits, similar to boiler suits but made of heavily abrasive resistant material such as cordura. In wet or windy caves PVC over suits may be preferred, as they provide a greater degree of protection against getting wet and keep the caver warmer. Over suits often come with reinforced areas, especially at wear points such as the elbows, seat and shins. Internal pockets and hoods are sometimes provided.

Knee pads, and less commonly, elbow pads are worn both to protect the caver and the caver's clothing. Gloves are also worn by cavers. In wet caves neoprene gloves can be worn as added protection against the cold.

Footwear

Wellington boots are a popular choice of footwear, being hard wearing, cheap, having good grip and great water resistance. Hiking boots are also worn as footwear, providing superior ankle support. They do however let water and grit in much easier and are often damaged by the harsh cave environment. There is also the risk of lace hooks ensnaring on ladders. In large dry tropical caves they are superior to welllington boots, being cooler and restrict movement less. Specialist canyoning boots offer an expensive alternative to wellingtons and hiking boots.

Helmets

While helmets are used to protect the cavers head against occasional falling rocks, they find much more use in protecting the caver’s heads from bumps and scrapes as the caver moves through low or awkward passageway. Helmets are invaluable for mounting lights, often cavers will attach an array of lights to their helmet. Many helmets used in caving can also be used as climbing helmets.

Vertical equipment

Many caves have shafts or drops that require ropes or ladders to pass. Wire ladders have largely been superseded by ropes for descending Pitch (vertical space) since the early 60's, though ladders still have useful applications on shorter pitches, where full abseiling gear would be inappropriate.

Single rope technique

Single rope technique (SRT) is the most commonly used technique for passing vertical obstacles.

Standard Equipment

Climbing harness - These are static and more abrasion resistant than the harnesses used in rock climbing.

Climbing rope - The rope used for abseiling is low-stretch static rope, typically 9mm thick in Europe. In the US SRT rope is thicker (11mm) and more abrasion resistant, given the greater amount of rope rub tolerated. Ropes are cut into varying lengths

Ascender - These are used to ascend ropes. Devices that used lever cams were once used, though these have now been overtaken in popularity by toothed cam devices which slip less. A minimum of two ascendents are used, one attached to the harness at waist level, and another attached to a foot loop and moved by hand. A third ascend er may be attached to a foot and a rope walking technique used.

Descender - This is used to abseil down the rope. There are two main types of descender - a bobbin descender such as the Petzl Stop, or a rack descender, favored in parts of the US for its smooth descent and excellent heat sinking capacities. Bobbin descenders are favored for European style SRT as it is easier to change ropes with at re belays and is lighter.

Cows tails - These are lanyards used to clip into safe points of contact when changing over at rebelays and while using traverse lines. They are made from a length of dynamic rope with two lanyards of differing length ending in carabiners.

Knife - Knives are used as safety equipment to cut ropes, cut hair caught in descenders etc.

Whistle - On long pitches where shouting is ineffective, whistles are used to signal other team members.

Ladders

Wire 'Elektron' ladders were once the most common method of descending large shafts. Today they are largely used for descending short or tight pitches. The rungs of the ladders are usually made of light metals such as aluminum. Ladders are usually made in 5m, 8m, or 10m lengths, and can be clipped together to make longer lengths. While ladders can be used without a belay, this is unsafe and is not recommended. Ladders may be carried loose until needed, or may be carried inside tough PVC tackle-bags.

Rope

Dynamic rope, more commonly used in climbing, is used in caving for belaying cavers on climbs or using ladders.

Static rope, once past its useful life for abseiling, is often used for fixed aids, such as hand lines on climbs. The rope may be knotted to help climbers. Rope may also be recycled for digging.

Bolting

Most caves require artificial anchor points to secure abseiling rope. A common method of placing bolts is to hand drill them using a hammer and a self-drilling bolt, using bolts adapted from the construction industry. A hangar can then be screwed into the bolt. Since affordable battery drills came on the market it is more common to see cavers drill the holes and use a variety of different bolts and concrete screws. Stainless steel resin bolts are used on routes that see a lot of traffic as they have a long life and, if placed correctly, are safe and reliable.

Surveying equipment

Cave surveying is a specialist activity undertaken within caving to produce maps of caves. The type of equipment used depends on the intended accuracy of the survey. A basic survey may be carried out with an orienteering or diving compass and distances paced by foot or estimated. A more accurate survey would make use of a tape measure and specialist surveying compasses and interferometers. Recently there has been a shift to wholly digital cave surveying

Measuring instruments

A standard Brunton Geo, a combined compass and interferometer, popular as a cave surveying compass until recently

The most common device used by cave surveyors is a sighting compass, such as that manufactured by Suunto or Silva, that can be read to the half-degree. Compasses used for cave surveying have to be rugged to cope with the harsh conditions. For high grade surveys, inclinometers are required, and are sometimes made in combined units with compasses. Recently, digital compasses and interferometers have been developed by enthusiasts, some with wireless connections to PDAs, though these have not yet attained widespread use.

Measuring distance

A standard fiberglass tape measure is commonly used to measure distance, usually in lengths of 30m or 50m. Laser rangefinders have recently gained popularity, though tapes remain preferable in especially wet or muddy conditions.

Recording data

Tough waterproof paper is used to record data, the advantage being that, if the paper becomes excessively muddy, it can be washed off in a stream or pool. Paperless surveying is now becoming a reality as digital measuring devices can be wirelessly connected to PDAs where the data is stored and drawn.

FOR CAVE LOVERS:

Waitomo Caves

The Waitomo Caves are a village and cave system forming a major tourist attraction in the northern King Country region of the North Island of New Zealand, 12 kilometers northwest of Te Kuiti. The community of Waitomo Caves itself is very small, though the village has many temporary service workers living there as well. The word Waitomo comes from the Māori language wai meaning water and tomo meaning a doline or sinkhole; it can thus be translated to be water passing through a hole. These Caves are believed to be over two million years old.

HISTORY  

The name "Waitomo" comes from the Māori words wai, water and tomo, hole or shaft. The local Māori people had known about the caves for quite some time before the local Māori Chief Tane Tinorau and an English surveyor, Fred Mace, did an extensive exploration in 1887. Their exploration was conducted with candlelight on a raft going into the cave where the stream goes underground. This is now the exit for the cave. As they began their journey, they came across the Glowworm Grotto and were amazed by the twinkling glow coming from the ceiling. As they travelled further into the cave by poling themselves towards an embankment, they were also astounded by the limestone formations. These formations surrounded them in all shapes and sizes.

They returned many times after and Chief Tane independently discovered the upper level entrance to the cave, which is now the current entrance. Tane Tinorau and his wife Huti, by 1889, had opened the cave to visitors and were leading groups for a small fee. The administration of the cave was taken over by the government in 1906 after there was an escalation in vandalism. In 1910, the Waitomo Caves Hotel was built to house the many visitors.

In 1989, the land and cave were returned to the descendants of Chief Tane Tinorau and Huti. They now receive a percentage of the cave’s revenue and are involved in the management and development of the cave. These descendants encompass many of the employees of the caves today

Majlis al Jinn

Majlis al Jinn, also Majlis al-Jinn (Arabic: مجلس الجن‎, meeting/gathering place of the Jinn, local name: Khoshilat Maqandeli) is the second largest known cave chamber in the world, as measured by the surface area of the floor. It ranks lower when measured by volume. The cave is located in a remote area of the Selma Plateau at 1,380 meters above sea level in the Sultanate of Oman, 100 km south-east from Muscat. 

 HISTORY 

The entrances were discovered in June 1983 by Americans W. Don Davison, Jr. (nickname: D2) and his wife, Cheryl S. Jones. Don, a hydrogeologist, who was employed by the government of Oman's Public Authority for Water Resources (PAWR), which later became the Ministry of Water Resources. The cave was located and mapped as part of the PAWR's Karst Research Program.

Exploration of Majlis Al Jinn began on 23 June 1983, when Don rappelled down the 118m First Drop. Cheryl's Drop was first negotiated on 1 March 1984, by Cheryl Jones. The 158m drop is deepest free rappel into a cave known in Oman and the Arabian peninsula. Finally, Don descended the Asterisk on 22 April 1985.

Don and Cheryl surveyed and photographed the cave in April and May, 1985. The map and cross sections they created, as well as photos, were originally published in the special PAWR report and have been reproduced many times since.

Omanis living in the area of the Selma Plateau told Don and Cheryl that they didn't have names for any of the holes on the plateau that served as entrances to the caves. So Cheryl gave the cave its name, referring to the Omani belief that jinns live in caves. Years later locals said they call the cave "Khoshilat Maqandeli" from the refuge for goats near one of the entrances. Nowadays locals refer to this cave as Khoshilat Maqandeli, while internationally it is known as Majlis al Jinn.

Don authored the first published account of the cave's discovery as a special report Majlis Al Jinn Cave, Sultanate of Oman, issued by the PAWR in October, 1985. A second article by Don, Meeting Room of the Spirits, was featured in the September–October, 1990, issue of Aramco World magazine. Majlis al Jinn was included in a story in the April, 2003, issue of National Geographic Magazine.

Cueva de los Cristales

Cave of the Crystals or Giant Crystal Cave (Spanish: Cueva de los Cristales) is a cave connected to the Naica Mine 300 metres (980 ft) below the surface in Naica, Chihuahua, Mexico. The main chamber contains giant selenite crystals (gypsum, CaSO4·2 H2O), some of the largest natural crystals ever found. The cave's largest crystal found to date is 12 m (39 ft) in length, 4 m (13 ft) in diameter and 55 tons in weight. The cave is extremely hot with air temperatures reaching up to 58 °C (136 °F) with 90 to 99 percent humidity. The cave is relatively unexplored due to these factors. Without proper protection people can only endure approximately ten minutes of exposure at a time.

A group of scientists known as the Naica Project have been heavily involved in researching these caverns.

HISTORY  

In 1910 miners discovered a cavern beneath the Naica mine workings, the Cave of Swords (Spanish: Cueva de las Espadas). It is located at a depth of 120 m, above the Cave of Crystals, and contains spectacular, smaller (1 m long) crystals. It is speculated that at this level, transition temperatures may have fallen much more rapidly, leading to an end in the growth of the crystals.

The Giant Crystal cave was discovered in 2000 by miners excavating a new tunnel for the Industrias Peñoles mining company located in Naica, Mexico, while drilling through the Naica fault, which they were concerned would flood the mine. The mining complex in Naica contains substantial deposits of silver, zinc and lead.

The Cave of Crystals is a horseshoe-shaped cavity in limestone. Its floor is covered with perfectly-faceted crystalline blocks. Huge crystal beams jut out from both the blocks and the floor. The caves are accessible today because the mining company's pumping operations keep them clear of water. If the pumping were stopped, the caves would again be submerged in water. The crystals deteriorate in air, so the Naica Project is attempting to visually document the crystals before they deteriorate further.

Two other smaller caverns were also discovered in 2000, the Queen’s Eye Cave and the Candles’ Cave, and a further chamber was found in a drilling project in 2009. The new cave, named the Ice Palace, is 150 m deep and is not flooded, but its crystal formations are much smaller, with small 'cauliflower' formations and fine, threadlike crystals.

Eisriesenwelt

The Eisriesenwelt (German for "World of the Ice Giants") is a natural limestone ice cave located in Werfen, Austria, about 40 km south of Salzburg. The cave is inside the Hochkogel Mountain in the Tennengebirge section of the Alps. It is the largest ice cave in the world, extending more than 42km and visited by about 200,000 tourists every year.

HISTORY

The first official discovery of Eisriesenwelt was by Anton Posselt, a natural scientist from Salzburg, in 1879, though he only explored the first two hundred meters of the cave. Before his discovery, the cave was known only to locals, who, believing that it was an entrance to Hell, refused to explore it. In 1880, Posselt published his findings in a mountaineering magazine, but the report was quickly forgotten.

Alexander von Mörk, a speleologist from Salzburg, was one of the few people who remembered Posselt's discovery. He led several expeditions into the caves beginning in 1912, which were soon followed by other explorers. Von Mörk was killed in World War I in 1914, and an urn containing his ashes is inside a niche in the cave. In 1920, a cabin for the explorers, Forscherhütte, was built and the first routes up the mountain were established. Tourists began to arrive soon after, attracted by the cave's sudden popularity. Later another cabin, the Dr. Oedl House, and paths from Werfen and Tänneck were constructed.

In 1955 a cable car was built, shortening the 90-minute climb to 3 minutes. Today the Eisriesenwelt cave is owned by the National Austrian Forest Commission, which has leased it to the Salzburg Association of Cave Exploration since 1928. The Forest Commission still receives a percentage of the entrance fees.

Cueva del Fantasma

Cueva del Fantasma ("Cave of the Ghost" in Spanish) is a giant cave in southern Venezuela, located in one of the most biologically rich, geologically ancient parts of the world, along the slopes of Aprada-tepui. Large enough for two helicopters to land in the cave, the report from Zootaxa is said to be the first photographic evidence of such an immense cave. However, experts note, it is not technically a cave, but rather a collapsed, steep gorge.